photonic integration Archives

Insights

June 5, 2024

Towards the 800ZR Future

The advances in electronic and photonic integration allowed coherent technology for metro DCIs to be…

The advances in electronic and photonic integration allowed coherent technology for metro DCIs to be miniaturized into QSFP-DD and OSFP form factors. This progress allowed the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) to create the 400ZR and ZR+ standards for 400G DWDM pluggable modules.

Following the success of 400ZR standardization, the industry quickly recognized the need for even higher-capacity solutions. In December 2020, the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) announced the initiation of the 800G Coherent project. This project aimed to define interoperable 800 Gbps coherent line specifications for various applications, including amplified DWDM links up to 120 km and unamplified fixed wavelength links of 2-10 km.

After the success of 400ZR standardization, the data center industry and the OIF are starting to promote an 800ZR standard to enable the next generation of interconnects. In OFC 2024, we started seeing some demos from several vendors and the OIF on this new standards initiative.

Coherent or Direct Detect for Data Centers

While coherent technology has become the dominant one for interconnecting data centers over long distances (80 km upwards), the campus sector and the inside of the data center continue to be dominated by direct detection technologies such as PAM-4.

However, as data rates rise into 800Gbps and beyond, the power consumption of coherent technology is expected to come much closer to that of direct detect PAM-4 solutions, as shown in the figure below. This can make coherent technology competitive for campus interconnects while direct detect technology remains dominant inside the data center.

A major reason for this decreased gap is that direct detect technology often requires additional amplifiers and compensators at these data rates, while coherent pluggables do not. This also makes coherent technology simpler to deploy and maintain. Furthermore, as the volume of coherent transceivers produced increases, their prices can also go down.

While the 800ZR standard is focused on longer-distance metro interconnects, efforts have also been made to develop a coherent 800G short-reach(SR) standard. Even if these efforts are unsuccessful in this generation of transceivers, they can lay the groundwork for using coherent technology in short-reach once terabit links become the new standard.

The Challenge of Power

LightCounting forecasts significant growth in dense-wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) port shipments with data rates of 600G, 800G, and beyond in the next five years.

Graph-pluggables-shipments-dwdm — Figure 2: Shipments of high-speed DWDM ports by data rate (historical data and forecast). Source: LightCounting Optical Communications Market Forecast, April 2022.

The major obstacles in this roadmap remain transceivers’ power consumption, thermal management, and affordability. Over the last two decades, power ratings for pluggable modules have increased as we moved from direct detection to more power-hungry coherent transmission: from 2W for SFP modules to 3.5 W for QSFP modules and now to 14W for QSSFP-DD and 21.1W for OSFP form factors. Rockley Photonics researchers estimate that a future electronic switch filled with 800G modules would draw around 1 kW of power just for the optical modules.

Thus, many incentives exist to improve pluggable optical transceivers’ performance and power consumption. By embracing increased photonic integration, co-designed PICs and DSPs, and more compact lasers, pluggables will be better able to scale in data rates while remaining affordable and low-power.

What Does This Mean for Lasers and DSPs?

The new generation of 800ZR pluggable transceivers can leverage 5nm process technology for their digital signal processors (DSPs), offering significant advancements over the 7nm technology used in 400ZR transceivers. A primary difference between these two processes lies in the size of the transistors used to build the chips: the 5nm process technology uses smaller transistors than the 7nm process. This size reduction allows more transistors to be packed into the same silicon area, enhancing the chip’s performance and energy efficiency.

For example, this enhanced transistor density facilitates higher baud rates, a critical factor for data transmission. The 800ZR modules will operate at baud rates of 120 GBaud, which doubles the 60 GBaud used in 400ZR transceivers. The increased power efficiency also makes these 800ZR transceivers more suitable for data center environments.

Regarding lasers for 800ZR, the mandate continues to be the same as always: develop the most powerful laser possible with the smallest footprint. Since 800G transmission naturally leads to higher transmission losses than 400G transmission, higher laser power is necessary to compensate for these losses and achieve the required reach. Meanwhile, the smaller laser size helps with thermal management inside the 800ZR module, and high laser power provides a higher link budget.

Takeaways

Following the success of the 400ZR standard, the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) quickly moved on to developing 800ZR standards for data center interconnects. The deployment of 800ZR technology promises substantial bandwidth and system performance enhancements but also poses a sustainable solution to the escalating power and thermal challenges modern data centers face. The use of 5nm process technology for DSPs and small but high-performance lasers within these modules will be vital to achieve the required power efficiency and performance.

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Tags: 5nm DSPs, 800Gbps, 800ZR technology, Coherent Transceivers, compact lasers, Data center interconnects, DWDM ports, EFFECT Photonics, high-speed transmission, Optical Internetworking Forum, photonic integration, power management, standards

Insights

May 8, 2024

The Evolution of Data Center Interconnects

The digital era’s rapid expansion requires advances in data center interconnects (DCIs) to support the…

The digital era’s rapid expansion requires advances in data center interconnects (DCIs) to support the burgeoning demands of cloud computing and data architecture.

For the sake of this article, let’s think broadly about three categories of data center interconnects based on their reach and location with relation to the data center

6 data center interconnect — Figure 1: Example of different data center interconnect (DCI) links. Intra-data center interconnects usually have lengths up to 2kms, campus interconnects up to 10km, and metro DCIs up to 100km, although there can be longer DCIs.

Intra-data center interconnects (< 2km)
Campus data center interconnects (<10km)
Metro data center interconnects (<100km)

As data centers become more complex and AI increases its demands on them, the intra-data center sector is increasing in complexity and variety, but that will be the subject of a different article.

Coherent optical technology has established itself as the go-to solution for interconnecting data centers over longer distances, while direct detect continues to dominate the intra data center sector.

The Increasing Importance of Decentralizing Data Centers

Smaller data centers placed locally have the potential to minimize latency, overcome inconsistent connections, and store and compute data closer to the end-user. These benefits are causing the global market for edge data centers to explode, with PWC predicting that it will nearly triple from $4 billion in 2017 to $13.5 billion in 2024.

Meanwhile, the demands of new AI infrastructure are pushing data center power consumption to such a degree that the electrical power grid might be unable to sustain it. Longer data center interconnects enable a more decentralized system of data centers with branches in different geographical areas connected through high-speed optical fiber links to cope with the strain of data center clusters on power grids.

These trends push the data center industry to look for interoperable solutions for longer interconnects over distances of 80 to 120 km. The advances in electronic and photonic integration allowed coherent technology for metro DCIs to be miniaturized into QSFP-DD and OSFP form factors. This progress allowed the Optical Internetworking Forum (OIF) to create the 400ZR and ZR+ standards for 400G DWDM pluggable modules. With small enough modules to pack a router faceplate densely, the datacom sector could profit from a 400ZR solution for high-capacity data center interconnects of up to 80km.

After the success of 400ZR standardization, the data center industry and the OIF are starting to promote an 800ZR standard to enable the next generation of interconnects. In OFC 2024, we started seeing some demos from several vendors and the OIF on this new standards initiative.

Direct Detect and Coherent Technology in DCIs

For many years, there has been an expectation that the increasing capacity demands on data centers would reach a point where coherent technology would deliver a lower cost per bit and power per bit than direct detect technologies.

However, direct detect technology (both NRZ and PAM-4) continues to successfully overcome the challenges of coherent technology and will continue to dominate the intra-DCI space (also called data center fabric) in the coming years. In this space, links span less than two kilometers, and for particularly short links (< 300 meters), affordable multimode fiber (MMF) is frequently used.

The tendency towards data center decentralization will also impact the inside of data centers. Larger data centers can require longer interconnects from one building to another. So in a way, some links inside the data centers could become more like campus DCI links, which require single-mode fiber solutions, and in those spaces coherent might have a better chance of becoming competitive.

Takeaways

The decision to use coherent or direct detection technology for DCIs boils down to the reach and capacity needs. Coherent is already established as the solution for metro DCIs, and efforts are underway towards an 800ZR standard to follow up on the highly successful 400ZR interconnect standard. With the move to Terabit speeds and scaling production volumes, it was expected to become competitive in the data center sector, too, but for now, direct detect technology continues to dominate this sector.

From basic networking to sophisticated, AI-enhanced architectures, DCIs have become the backbone of the digital infrastructure, enabling the seamless operation of global cloud services and data centers.

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Tags: 400ZR, 800ZR, AI, Campus interconnects, cloud computing, coherent optical technology, data architecture, Data center interconnects, DCIs, decentralizing data centers, digital era, Direct Detect, edge data centers, EFFECTPhotonics, electrical power grid, global cloud services, intra-data center, metro DCIs, multimode fiber, NRZ, OFC 2024, PAM-4, photonic integration, power consumption, single-mode fiber, Terabit speeds

Insights

April 10, 2024

Making Smaller Lasers at a Big Scale

The world is moving towards tunability. The combination of tunable lasers and dense wavelength division…

The world is moving towards tunability. The combination of tunable lasers and dense wavelength division multiplexing (DWDM) allows datacom and telecom industries to expand their network capacity without increasing their existing fiber infrastructure. Furthermore, the miniaturization of coherent technology into pluggable transceiver modules has finally enabled the widespread implementation of IP over DWDM solutions.

With the increasing demand for coherent transceivers, many companies have performed acquisitions and mergers that allow them to develop transceiver components internally and thus secure their supply. LightCounting forecasts show that while this consolidation will decrease the sales of modulator and receiver components, the demand for tunable lasers will continue to grow. The forecast expects the tunable laser market for the transceiver to reach a size of $400M in 2026.

East Asia is a huge driver of the rising number of tunable lasers sales. With initiatives like the “Broadband China” strategy and significant investments in 5G and beyond, the demand for advanced optical components, including tunable lasers, has surged in China. Japan and South Korea have a long history of adopting early new optical telecom innovations. After all, Japanese companies are at the forefront of research and development in tunable laser technology, and South Korea has built highly future-proofed 5G networks that are ahead of the implementations in Europe and North America. To meet the demands of this region, the industry needs to improve at making highly integrated tunable lasers at scale.

Making New and Smaller Lasers

The impact of small and integrated lasers extends beyond mere size considerations; it crucially contributes to enhancing power efficiency. Smaller laser designs inherently operate at lower voltages and currents, offering improved heat dissipation and minimizing coupling losses. Photonic integration helps achieve these reductions, maximizing efficiency by consolidating multiple functions onto a single chip.

The journey towards 100G coherent technology in access networks requires compact and power-efficient coherent pluggables in the QSFP28 form factor and, with it, compact and power-efficient tunable lasers that fit this form factor.

This monolithic integration of all tunable laser functions allowed EFFECT Photonics to develop a novel pico-ITLA (pITLA) module that will become the world’s smallest ITLA for coherent applications. The pITLA is the next step in tunable laser integration, including all laser functions in a package with just 20% of the volume of a nano-ITLA module. The figure below shows that even a standard matchstick dwarves the pITLA in size.

EFFECT Photonics’ laser solution is unique because it enables a widely tunable laser for which all its functions, including the wavelength locker, are monolithically integrated on a single chip. This setup is ideal for reducing power consumption and scaling into high production volumes.

The Economics of Scale

As innovative as these new, small lasers can be, they will have little impact if they cannot be manufactured at a high enough volume to satisfy the demands of mobile and cloud providers and drive down the cost per device.

This economy-of-scale principle is the same one behind electronics manufacturing, and the same must be applied to photonics. The more optical components we can integrate into a single chip, the more can the price of each component decrease. The more optical System-on-Chip (SoC) devices can go into a single wafer, the more can the price of each SoC decrease.

Researchers at the Technical University of Eindhoven and the JePPIX consortium have done some modelling to show how this economy of scale principle would apply to photonics. If production volumes can increase from a few thousands of chips per year to a few millions, the price per optical chip can decrease from thousands of Euros to mere tens of Euros. This must be the goal for the optical transceiver and tunable laser industry.

Learning to Scale from Electronics

A key way to improve photonics manufacturing is to learn from electronics packaging, assembly, and testing methods that are already well-known and standardized. After all, building a new special production line is much more expensive than modifying an existing production flow.

One electronic technique essential to transfer into photonics is ball-grid array (BGA) packaging. BGA-style packaging has grown popular among electronics manufacturers over the last few decades. It places the chip connections under the chip package, allowing more efficient use of space in circuit boards, a smaller package size, and better soldering.

Another critical technique to move into photonics is flip-chip bonding. This process is where solder bumps are deposited on the chip in the final fabrication step. The chip is flipped over and aligned with a circuit board for easier soldering.

Figure 5: Simplified steps of the flip chip bonding process.

Takeaways

As the demand for data and telecommunication services surges globally, the industry is moving towards more compact, power-efficient, and scalable laser solutions that integrate all necessary functions on a single chip. With East Asia driving the demand for these advanced components through their ambitious broadband and 5G initiatives, the challenge now lies in applying the economies of scale principle from electronics manufacturing to photonics. This approach would dramatically reduce costs and enable the mass adoption of these technologies.

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Tags: 100G coherent technology, 5G Networks, access networks, acquisitions, ball-grid array, Broadband China strategy, Coherent technology, datacom, Dense wavelength division multiplexing, East Asia, economy-of-scale principle, EFFECT Photonics, electronics manufacturing, electronics packaging, Fiber Infrastructure, Flip-chip bonding, high production volumes, highly integrated tunable lasers, IP over DWDM solutions, JePPIX consortium, LightCounting forecasts, mergers, Network capacity, optical components, photonic integrated chip, photonic integration, Photonics, Pico-ITLA Module, Pluggable transceiver modules, power consumption, Power Efficiency, QSFP28 form factor, System-on-Chip devices, Technical University of Eindhoven, telecom industries, The world, transceiver components, tunable laser market, Tunable laser technology, tunable lasers, wafer, wavelength locker

Insights

March 20, 2024

Tunable Lasers and DSPs in the Age of AI

The use of generative artificial intelligence (AI) models is transforming several industries, and data centers…

The use of generative artificial intelligence (AI) models is transforming several industries, and data centers are no exception. AI models are computationally heavy, and their increasing complexity will require faster and more efficient interconnections than ever between GPUs, nodes, server racks, and data center campuses. These interconnects will have a major impact on the ability of data center architectures to scale and handle the demands of AI models in a sustainable way.

As we discussed in a previous article, transceivers that fit this new AI era must be fast, smart, and adapt to multiple use cases and conditions. However, what impact will that have on the tunable lasers and digital signal processors (DSPs) inside these transceivers? This article will review a couple of trends in lasers and DSPs to adapt to this new era.

The Power of Laser Arrays

In 2022, Intel Labs demonstrated an eight-wavelength laser array fully integrated on a silicon wafer. These milestones are essential for optical transceivers because the laser arrays can allow for multi-channel transceivers that are more cost-effective when scaling up to higher speeds.

Let’s say we need an intra-DCI link with 1.6 Terabits/s of capacity. There are three ways we could implement it:

Four modules of 400G: This solution uses existing off-the-shelf modules but has the largest footprint. It requires four slots in the router faceplate and an external multiplexer to merge these into a single 1.6T channel.
One module of 1.6T: This solution will not require the external multiplexer and occupies just one plug slot on the router faceplate. However, making a single-channel 1.6T device has the highest complexity and cost.
One module with four internal channels of 400G: A module with an array of four lasers (and thus four different 400G channels) will only require one plug slot on the faceplate while avoiding the complexity and cost of the single-channel 1.6T approach.

Multi-laser array and multi-channel solutions will become increasingly necessary to increase link capacity in coherent systems. They will not need more slots in the router faceplate while simultaneously avoiding the higher cost and complexity of increasing the speed with just a single channel.

Co-Designing DSP and Optical Engine

Transceiver developers often source their DSP, laser, and optical engine from different suppliers, so all these chips are designed separately from each other. In such cases, the DSP is like a Swiss army knife: a jack of all trades designed for different kinds of optical engines but a master of none.

For example, current DSPs are designed to be agnostic to the material platform of the photonic integrated circuit (PIC) they are connected to, which can be Indium Phosphide (InP) or Silicon. Thus, they do not exploit the intrinsic advantages of these material platforms. Co-designing the DSP chip alongside the PIC can lead to a much better fit between these components.

A PIC and a standard platform-agnostic DSP typically operate with signals of differing intensities, so they need some RF analog electronic components to “talk” to each other. This signal power conversion overhead can constitute up to 2 Watts or about 10-15% of transceiver power consumption.

However, the modulator of an InP PIC can run at a lower voltage than a silicon modulator. If this InP PIC and the DSP are designed and optimized together instead of using a standard DSP, the PIC could be designed to run at a voltage compatible with the DSP’s signal output. This way, the optimized DSP could drive the PIC directly without needing the RF analog driver, doing away with most of the power conversion overhead we discussed previously.

Smart Devices Built In Scale

Making coherent optical transceivers more affordable is a matter of volume production. As discussed in a previous article, if PIC production volumes can increase from a few thousand chips per year to a few million, the price per optical chip can decrease from thousands of Euros to mere tens of Euros. Achieving this production goal requires photonics manufacturing chains to learn from electronics and leverage existing electronics manufacturing processes and ecosystems.

While vertically-integrated PIC development has its strengths, a fabless model in which developers outsource their PIC manufacturing to a large-scale foundry is the simplest way to scale to production volumes of millions of units. Fabless PIC developers can remain flexible and lean, relying on trusted large-scale manufacturing partners to guarantee a secure and high-volume supply of chips. Furthermore, the fabless model allows photonics developers to concentrate their R&D resources on their end market and designs instead of costly fabrication facilities.

Further progress must also be made in the packaging, assembly, and testing of photonic chips. While these processes are only a small part of the cost of electronic systems, the reverse happens with photonics. To become more accessible and affordable, the photonics manufacturing chain must become more automated and standardized. It must move towards proven and scalable packaging methods that are common in the electronics industry.

If you want to know more about how photonics developers can leverage electronic ecosystems and methods, we recommend you read our in-depth piece on the subject.

Takeaways

In conclusion, tunable lasers and DSPs are adapting to meet the rising demands of AI-driven data center infrastructure. The integration of multi-wavelength laser arrays and the co-design of DSPs and optical engines are crucial steps towards creating more efficient, scalable, and cost-effective optical transceivers. These devices will be smart and provide some telemetry data, and must shift towards volume production and the adoption of electronics industry methodologies. These innovations not only promise to enhance the capacity and efficiency of data center interconnects but also pave the way for a more sustainable growth trajectory in the face of AI’s computational demands.

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Tags: 100ZR, access network, co-design, coherent, controlled, edge, fit for platform DSP, InP, Integrated Photonics, low power, photonic integration, Photonics, pluggables, power consumption, power conversion, QSFP 28, QSFP-DD

The power of self-tuning access networks

Insights

January 31, 2024

The Power of Self-Tuning Access Networks

Article first published 16th February 2022, updated 31st January 2024. 5G networks will use higher…

Article first published 16^th February 2022, updated 31^st January 2024.

5G networks will use higher frequency bands, which require the deployment of more cell sites and antennas to cover the same geographical areas as 4G while existing antennas must upgrade to denser antenna arrays. On the side of fixed access networks, the rise of Remote PHY architectures and Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) will lead to a similar increase in the density of optical network coverage.

Installing and maintaining these new nodes in fixed networks and optical fronthaul links for wireless networks will require many new DWDM optical links. Even though tunable DWDM modules have made these deployments a bit easier to handle, this tremendous network upgrade still comes with several challenges. Typical tunable modules still require several time-consuming processes to install and maintain, and that time quickly turns into higher expenses.

In the coming decade, the winners in the battle for dominance of access networks will be the providers and countries with the most extensive installed fiber base. Therefore, providers and nations must scale up cost-effectively AND quickly. Every hour saved is essential to reach targets before the competition. Fortunately, the telecom industry has a new weapon in the fight to reduce time-to-service and costs of their future networks: self-tuning DWDM modules.

Plug-and-Play Operation Reduces Time to Service

Typical tunable modules involve several tasks—manual tuning, verification of wavelength channel records—that can easily take an extra hour just for a single installation. Repair work on the field can take even longer if the technicians visit two different sites (e.g., the node and the multiplexer) to verify that they connected the correct fibers. If there are hundreds of nodes to install or repair, the required hours of labor can quickly rack up into the thousands.

Self-tuning allows technicians to treat tunable modules the same way they do with grey transceivers. There is no need for additional training for technicians to install the tunable module. Technicians only need to follow the typical cleaning and handling procedures, plug in the tunable module, and once plugged, the device will automatically scan and find the correct wavelength.

This plug-and-play operation of self-tuning modules eliminates the additional time and complexity of deploying new nodes and DWDM links in optical access networks. Self-tuning is a game-changing feature that makes DWDM networks simpler and more affordable to upgrade, manage, and maintain.

Host-Agnostic and Interoperable

Another way to save time when installing new tunable modules is to let specialized host equipment perform the tuning procedure instead. However, that would require the module and host to be compatible with each other and thus “speak the same language” when performing the tuning procedure. This situation leads to vendor lock-in: providers and integrators could not use host equipment or modules from a third party. This lock-in adds an extra layer of complexity and gives providers less flexibility to upgrade and innovate in their networks.

*Figure 1: Short description and comparison of different approaches to DWDM tunable modules.*

Self-tuning modules do not carry this trade-off because they are “host-agnostic”: they can plug into any host device as long as it accepts third-party 10G grey optics. Just as technicians can treat a self-tuning module as grey, any third-party host equipment can do the same. This benefit is possible because the module takes care of the tuning independently without relying on the host.

Enabling Simpler Network Management

Self-tuning lies at the core of EFFECT Photonics’ NarroWave technology. To implement our NarroWave procedures, we add a small low-frequency modulation signal to the tunable module and specific software that performs wavelength scanning and locking. Since this is a process controlled via software and the added signal is very small, it has no impact on these transceivers’ optical design and performance. It is simply an additional feature that the user can activate. The figure below gives a simplified overview of how NarroWave self-tuning works.

Figure 2: Example of a point to (multi-)point system including NarroWave self-tuning. Each of the 10G SFP+ modules is a full C-band tunable covering ITU channels 12 to 61. This link uses a single fiber for full duplex DWDM transmission, with unique wavelengths for up- and downstream links. When powered up, the modules will scan through different wavelengths, but in this case only the ‘correct’ wavelengths of channels 56 and 60 will go through the mux/demux unit and into the receiver on the other end. That receiver will then acknowledge reception of the signal.

Since self-tuning software requires exchanging commands between modules across the network, it can also enable remote management tasks. For example, our NarroWave communication channel can also allow the operator’s headend module to have read-write control over certain memory registers of the tail-end module. This means that the operator can modify several module variables such as the wavelength channel, power levels, behaviour when turning on/off, all from the comfort of the central office.

In addition, the NarroWave channel also allows the headend module to read diagnostic information from the remote module, such as transmitter power levels, alarms, warnings, or status flags. NarroWave then allows the user to act upon this information and change control limits, initiate channel tuning, or clear flags. These remote diagnostics and management features avoid the need for additional truck rolls and save even more operational expenses. They are especially convenient when dealing with very remote and hard-to-reach sites (e.g., an underground installation) that require expensive truck rolls. Some vendors have made remote installation and management of these modules even more accessible through smartphone app interfaces.

Takeaways

With these advantages, self-tuning modules can help rethink how optical access networks are built and maintained. They minimize the network’s time-to-service by eliminating additional installation tasks such as manual tuning and record verification and reducing the potential for human error. They are host-agnostic and can plug into any third-party host equipment. Furthermore, tunability standards will allow modules from different vendors to communicate with each other, avoiding compatibility issues and simplifying upgrade choices. Finally, the communication channels used in self-tuning can also become channels for remote diagnostics and management, simplifying network operation even further.

Self-tuning modules are bound to make optical network deployment and operation faster, simpler, and more affordable. In our next article, we will elaborate on how to customize self-tuning modules to better fit the needs of specific networks.

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Tags: access networks, DWDM, fixed access networks, flexible, G.metro, Integrated Photonics, OPEX, optical transceivers, photonic integration, Photonics, pluggables, remote diagnostics, remote management, self-tuning, Smart Tunable MSA, Transceivers, tuneability

Insights

May 31, 2023

Building a Sustainable Future with Fully Integrated PICs

Article first published 27 September 2021, updated 31st May 2023. The demand for data and…

Article first published 27 September 2021, updated 31st May 2023.

The demand for data and other digital services is rising exponentially. From 2010 to 2020, the number of Internet users worldwide doubled, and global internet traffic increased 12-fold. By 2022, internet traffic had doubled yet again. While 5G standards are more energy-efficient per bit than 4G, the total power consumption will be much higher than 4G. Huawei expects that the maximum power consumption of one of their 5G base stations will be 68% higher than their 4G stations. These issues do not just affect the environment but also the bottom lines of communications companies.

Keeping up with the increasing data demand of future networks sustainably will require operators to deploy more optical technologies, such as photonic integrated circuits (PICs), in their access and fronthaul networks.

Integration Impacts Energy Efficiency and Optical Losses

Lately, we have seen many efforts to increase further the integration on a component level across the electronics industry. For example, moving towards greater integration of components in a single chip has yielded significant efficiency benefits in electronics processors. Apple’s recent M1 and M2 processors integrate all electronic functions in a single system-on-chip (SoC) and consume significantly less power than the processors with discrete components used in their previous generations of computers.

𝗠𝗮𝗰 𝗠𝗶𝗻𝗶 𝗠𝗼𝗱𝗲𝗹	𝗣𝗼𝘄𝗲𝗿 𝗖𝗼𝗻𝘀𝘂𝗺𝗽𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻
𝗠𝗮𝗰 𝗠𝗶𝗻𝗶 𝗠𝗼𝗱𝗲𝗹	𝗜𝗱𝗹𝗲	𝗠𝗮𝘅
2023, M2	7	5
2020, M1	7	39
2018, Core i7	20	122
2014, Core i5	6	85
2010, Core 2 Duo	10	85
2006, Core Solo or Duo	23	110
2005, PowerPC G4	32	85
Table 1: Comparing the power consumption of a Mac Mini with an M1 and M2 SoC chips to previous generations of Mac Minis. [Source: Apple’s website]

Photonics is also achieving greater efficiency gains by following a similar approach to integration. The more active and passive optical components (lasers, modulators, detectors, etc.) manufacturers can integrate on a single chip, the more energy they can save since they avoid coupling losses between discrete components and allow for interactive optimization.

Let’s start by discussing three different levels of device integration for an optical device like a transceiver:

Discrete build – The transceiver components are manufactured through separate processes. The components are then assembled into a single package using different types of interconnections.
Partial integration – Some components are manufactured and integrated on the same chip, but others are manufactured or sourced separately. For example, the transceiver laser can be manufactured separately on a different material and then interconnected to a chip with the other transceiver components.
Full integration – All the components are manufactured on a single chip from a single material simultaneously.

While discrete builds and partial integration have advantages in managing the production yield of the individual components, full integration leads to fewer optical losses and more efficient packaging and testing processes, making them a much better fit in terms of sustainability.

The interconnects required to couple discrete components result in electrical and optical losses that must be compensated with higher transmitter power and more energy consumption. The more interconnects between different components, the higher the losses become. Discrete builds will have the most interconnect points and highest losses. Partial integration reduces the number of interconnect points and losses compared to discrete builds. If these components are made from different optical materials, the interconnections will suffer additional losses.

On the other hand, full integration uses a single chip of the same base material. It does not require lossy interconnections between chips, minimizing optical losses and significantly reducing the energy consumption and footprint of the transceiver device.

Figure 1: Example of integrating a laser to other photonic components through different integration approaches.

More Integration Saves Scarce Resources

When it comes to energy consumption and sustainability, we shouldn’t just think about the energy the PIC consumes but also the energy and carbon footprint of fabricating the chip and assembling the transceiver. To give an example from the electronics sector, a Harvard and Facebook study estimated that for Apple, manufacturing accounts for 74% of their carbon emissions, with integrated circuit manufacturing comprising roughly 33% of Apple’s carbon output. That’s higher than the emissions from product use.

Figure 2: Apple’s carbon-emission breakdown. Manufacturing accounts for 74% of total emissions, and hardware use accounts for 19%. Carbon output from manufacturing integrated circuits (i.e., SoCs, DRAM, and NAND flash memory) is higher than that of hardware use. [Source: ]

Early Testing Avoids Wastage

Testing is another aspect of the manufacturing process that impacts sustainability. The earlier faults can be found in the testing process, the greater the impact on the use of materials and the energy used to process defective chips. Ideally, testing should happen not only on the final, packaged transceiver but in the earlier stages of PIC fabrication, such as measuring after wafer processing or cutting the wafer into smaller dies.

Figure 3: Package level (top row) vs. die level (bottom row) testing. Manufacturers can find faults earlier by testing at the die level, which avoids wasting packaging materials.

Discrete and partial integration approaches do more of their optical testing on the finalized package, after connecting all the different components together. Should just one of the components not pass the testing process, the complete packaged transceiver would need to be discarded, potentially leading to a massive waste of materials as nothing can be ”fixed” or reused at this stage of the manufacturing process.

Full integration enables earlier optical testing on the semiconductor wafer and dies. By testing the dies and wafers directly before packaging, manufacturers need only discard the bad dies rather than the whole package, which saves valuable energy and materials.

Full Integration Drives Sustainability

While communication networks have become more energy-efficient, further technological improvements must continue decreasing the cost of energy per bit and keeping up with the exponential increase in Internet traffic. At the same time, a greater focus is being placed on the importance of sustainability and responsible manufacturing. All the photonic integration approaches we have touched on will play a role in reducing the energy consumption of future networks. However, out of all of them, only full integration is in a position to make a significant contribution to the goals of sustainability and environmentally friendly manufacturing. A fully integrated system-on-chip minimizes optical losses, transceiver energy consumption, power usage, and materials wastage while at the same time ensuring increased energy efficiency of the manufacturing, packaging, and testing process.

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Tags: ChipIntegration, Data demand, DataDemand, EFFECT Photonics, Energy consumption reduction, energy efficiency, EnergySavings, Environmental impact, Fully Integrated PICs, Green Future, GreenFuture, Integrated Photonics, Integration benefits, Manufacturing sustainability, Optical technologies, OpticalComponents, photonic integration, PIC, PICs, ResponsibleManufacturing, sustainability telecommunication, Sustainable, Sustainable future, SustainableNetworks, Transceiver optimization

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